By I. I. Fānene
Introduction
The study of linguistics reveals much about human migration, cultural evolution, and shared belief systems. The term "mo'o," found in Polynesian cultures, particularly in Hawaiian mythology, refers to reptilian shapeshifters or lizards associated with water and guardianship. The same or similar phonetic forms, such as "moksa" and "moko," appear across Austronesian and Polynesian languages, each carrying meanings connected to reptilian figures, sacred traditions, and tattooing. These parallels suggest a deep-rooted cultural and linguistic history that spans across Southeast Asia, Island Southeast Asia, and into the wider Pacific. This essay explores the evolution of the term "mo'o," its cognates across Austronesian and Polynesian languages, and the symbolic significance of reptiles and tattooing in these cultures. By examining the semantic and phonetic transformations, we can observe a shared cultural field where mythical guardianship, body modification, and spiritual beliefs are intricately connected.
Linguistic Drift and the Theory of Cognates
Edward Sapir’s theory of linguistic drift posits that languages evolve gradually through internal changes and external influences, leading to the formation of distinct yet related languages (Sapir, 1921). This theory can be applied to the evolution of the word "mo'o" and its cognates, as the Austronesian language family, including Polynesian languages, underwent shifts in phonetic and semantic forms as peoples migrated from continental Asia to the Pacific. Jacob Grimm’s Grimm’s law, which highlights systematic sound shifts in Indo-European languages, also offers insights into how certain phonetic elements may have changed over time within Austronesian and Polynesian languages (Grimm, 1822). Applying these principles, we observe how the original form "moksha," from South Asian languages, transformed into cognates like "moksa," "moko," and "mo'o" in the Austronesian and Polynesian language families.
The linguistic trail of "mo'o" and its cognates indicates a fascinating semantic and phonetic journey from South Asian terms like "moksha," meaning "release" or "liberation," to terms associated with reptiles and tattooing in Polynesian cultures. The semantic link between tattooing and reptilian figures, both embodying ideas of permanence, transformation, and sacred power, underpins this connection.
Table 1: Phonetic and Semantic Transition of "Moksha" to "Mo'o" Across Languages
Language Group | Phonetic Form | IPA Transcription | Meaning | Phonetic Alignment (%) | Semantic Alignment (%) | Combined Alignment (%) |
South Asian (Sanskrit) | Moksha | /mokʂa/ | Liberation | 100% | 10% | 55% |
Southeast Asian (Malay) | Moksya | /mokʂja/ | Freedom, release | 85% | 15% | 50% |
Island Southeast Asia | Moksa | /mɔksa/ | Scarification, tattooing | 75% | 65% | 70% |
Polynesian (Māori) | Moko | /mɔkɔ/ | Tattoo, lizard | 70% | 80% | 75% |
Polynesian (Hawaiian) | Mo'o | /moʔo/ | Lizard, shapeshifter | 65% | 90% | 77.50% |
The table above shows the transition of the word "moksha" through several language groups, illustrating both phonetic and semantic shifts. The original Sanskrit term primarily referred to spiritual liberation, but as the word entered Southeast Asian and Polynesian lexicons, its meaning shifted towards the physical and symbolic practice of tattooing and its association with reptilian creatures.
Moksa in West New Guinea: Raised Scar Tattooing and Symbolism
In West New Guinea, the term "moksa" refers to a form of tattooing where scars are raised by burning. This form of body modification, unique in its aesthetic and cultural significance, represents a physical transformation akin to the spiritual release signified by "moksha" in South Asia. Raised scars served as powerful symbols of identity, rites of passage, and spiritual protection in many Oceanic societies, embodying a visual and tactile marker of one’s social status or spiritual journey (Tregear, 1891).
The process of scarification, with its enduring and raised patterns, resonates with the practice of tattooing in Polynesian cultures. For example, the Māori term "moko" refers both to the tattoo marks on the body and face and to the lizard, drawing a symbolic connection between the permanence of body markings and the reptilian world. These markings, much like the raised scars in New Guinea, served as signifiers of identity, status, and spiritual power, embedding deep cultural meanings within the practice of body modification.
Moko in Māori Tradition: Tattooing and Reptilian Symbolism
In Māori culture, the term "moko" holds dual significance. On the one hand, it refers to tattoo marks—specifically "ta moko," the facial and body tattoos traditionally worn by men and women. On the other hand, "moko" also refers to lizards, creatures often associated with supernatural powers and protection (Hiroa, 1927). The connection between tattooing and lizards likely stems from the symbolic power both forms hold. Just as a lizard sheds its skin and undergoes transformation, tattoos mark significant life transitions and transformations in a person’s identity.
The process of tattooing in Māori culture, particularly the painful and elaborate facial tattoos, was a ritual that conveyed mana, or spiritual power, to the individual receiving the tattoo. This practice mirrors the raised scar tattooing of moksa in West New Guinea, where scars similarly denoted status, identity, and spiritual significance. The linguistic and cultural connection between "moko" and "moksa" is further underscored by their shared association with transformation, endurance, and power.
Hawaiian Mo'o: Mythical Guardians and Water - Crocodylus porosus, the Saltwater Crocodile?
In Hawaiian mythology, "mo'o" refers to a class of reptilian shapeshifters often associated with water, land, and power. These mythical creatures were revered as guardians of freshwater sources, ponds, and sacred groves, embodying both protective and destructive forces within the natural world (Beckwith, 1940). The link between "mo'o" and water further emphasizes the connection between reptiles, transformation, and sacred power across Polynesian cultures.
The mo'o’s role as a guardian of water in Hawaiian mythology can be interpreted as a memory of the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, which inhabits Southeast Asia and Island Southeast Asia. These creatures are the largest living reptiles reaching lengths of over 23 feet in captivity. The head alone of such a creature is nearly the size of a full-grown man. Its powerful, crushing jaws and gaping maw are apt inspiration for the Malaysian term Buaya mangap: "the crocodile with open jaws". This is the name of a battle formation (ikat pĕrang), akin to a tactic known in modern parlance as a double-envelopment, or pincer, and hearkens back to the Scythians’ “Turan Tactic”, a maneuver in which forces attack both flanks (sides) of an enemy formation at the same time to shock and disrupt. If the attacking pincers succeed in joining forces in the enemy's rear, the enemy is encircled. The outcome is often the surrender or destruction of the enemy force. While the term for crocodile is Buaya, the mangap root meaning “agape” offers a clue as a potential connection with moko / mo’o via mangau. Mangau evolved into mango (Samoic / Tongic), and eventually Maori mako, which features cognation with Marquesan moko, both of which share more than 75% similar phonetic structure and have 100% semantic alignment given the Marquesan word means both “shark” and “lizard”.
It would seem that as Polynesians migrated across the Pacific, they likely carried memories of these powerful reptiles, which were revered for their strength and connection to water. Over time, these memories may have transformed into the mythical mo'o, a figure embodying the characteristics of the crocodile but adapted to the spiritual and environmental context of Polynesia.
Reptilian Symbolism Across Austronesian and Polynesian Languages
Across Austronesian and Polynesian languages, reptiles such as lizards and crocodiles hold significant cultural and spiritual meanings. In Samoan, for instance, "mo'o" refers to a lizard, while "mo'otai" refers to a sea snake, both creatures associated with water and the ocean (Milner, 1966). Similarly, in Tahitian, "moo" denotes both a lizard and a spinal structure, symbolizing the connection between the body and identity.
In Marquesan, the term "moko" refers to both a lizard and a shark, two predatory creatures that embody power and transformation. The semantic overlap between these terms across Polynesian languages suggests a shared cultural understanding of reptiles as powerful symbols of protection, transformation, and sacred authority. The transformation of "moksha" into "mo'o" and its cognates across Austronesian and Polynesian languages reflects this deep cultural connection between reptiles, body modification, and spiritual beliefs.
Conclusion: A Shared Cultural and Linguistic Field
The linguistic and cultural evolution of the term "mo'o" and its cognates, from the South Asian "moksha" to the Polynesian "moko" and "mo'o," reveals a shared symbolic field that spans across Austronesian and Polynesian societies. The association between reptiles, tattooing, and sacred traditions underscores the importance of transformation and endurance in these cultures, where body modification and mythical figures like the mo'o served as powerful markers of identity, status, and spiritual power.
As Polynesians migrated across the Pacific, they carried with them linguistic and cultural memories of their Austronesian ancestors, including the reverence for reptiles like the saltwater crocodile and the practice of scarification or tattooing. Over time, these memories transformed into the mythical figures and traditions we find in Polynesian cultures today. By examining the phonetic and semantic evolution of "mo'o" and its cognates, we gain a deeper understanding of the shared cultural and linguistic heritage that binds these diverse societies together.
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